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Optical computing

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Optical computing or photonic computing uses <a href="Light_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Light wave">light waves</a> produced by <a href="Laser" title="Laser">lasers</a> or incoherent sources for <a href="Data_processing" title="Data processing">data processing</a>, data storage or <a href="Data_communication" title="Data communication">data communication</a> for <a href="Computing" title="Computing">computing</a>. For decades, <a href="Photon" title="Photon">photons</a> have shown promise to enable a higher <a href="Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal processing)">bandwidth</a> than the <a href="Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> used in conventional computers (see <a href="Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fibers</a>).

Most research projects focus on replacing current computer components with optical equivalents, resulting in an optical <a href="Digital_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital computer">digital computer</a> system processing <a href="Binary_data" title="Binary data">binary data</a>. This approach appears to offer the best short-term prospects for commercial optical computing, since optical components could be integrated into traditional computers to produce an optical-electronic hybrid. However, <a href="Optoelectronic" class="mw-redirect" title="Optoelectronic">optoelectronic</a> devices consume 30% of their energy converting electronic energy into photons and back; this conversion also slows the transmission of messages. All-optical computers eliminate the need for optical-electrical-optical (OEO) conversions, thus reducing electrical <a href="Power_consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Power consumption">power consumption</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a>

Application-specific devices, such as <a href="Synthetic-aperture_radar" title="Synthetic-aperture radar">synthetic-aperture radar</a> (SAR) and <a href="Optical_correlator" title="Optical correlator">optical correlators</a>, have been designed to use the principles of optical computing. Correlators can be used, for example, to detect and track objects,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> and to classify serial time-domain optical data.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Optical_components_for_binary_digital_computer">Optical components for binary digital computer</h2></div>

The fundamental building block of modern electronic computers is the <a href="Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a>. To replace electronic components with optical ones, an equivalent <a href="Optical_transistor" title="Optical transistor">optical transistor</a> is required. This is achieved by <a href="Crystal_optics" title="Crystal optics">crystal optics</a> (using materials with a <a href="Refractive_index#Nonlinearity" title="Refractive index">non-linear refractive index</a>).<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> In particular, materials exist<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> where the intensity of incoming light affects the intensity of the light transmitted through the material in a similar manner to the current response of a bipolar transistor. Such an optical transistor<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-jainprattpatent-7">[7]</a> can be used to create optical <a href="Logic_gate" title="Logic gate">logic gates</a>,<a href="#cite_note-jainprattpatent-7">[7]</a> which in turn are assembled into the higher level components of the computer's <a href="Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">central processing unit</a> (CPU). These will be nonlinear optical crystals used to manipulate light beams into controlling other light beams.

Like any computing system, an optical computing system needs four things to function well:

<ol><li>optical processor</li>

<li>optical data transfer, e.g. fiber-optic cable</li>

<li><a href="Optical_storage" title="Optical storage">optical storage</a>,<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></li>

<li>optical power source (light source)</li></ol>

Substituting electrical components will need data format conversion from photons to electrons, which will make the system slower.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Controversy">Controversy</h3></div>

There are some disagreements between researchers about the future capabilities of optical computers; whether or not they may be able to compete with semiconductor-based electronic computers in terms of speed, power consumption, cost, and size is an open question. Critics note that<a href="#cite_note-Tucker-9">[9]</a> real-world logic systems require "logic-level restoration, cascadability, <a href="Fan-out" title="Fan-out">fan-out</a> and input–output isolation", all of which are currently provided by electronic transistors at low cost, low power, and high speed. For optical logic to be competitive beyond a few niche applications, major breakthroughs in non-linear optical device technology would be required, or perhaps a change in the nature of computing itself.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Misconceptions,_challenges,_and_prospects">Misconceptions, challenges, and prospects</h2></div>

A significant challenge to optical computing is that computation is a <a href="Nonlinear" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonlinear">nonlinear</a> process in which multiple signals must interact. Light, which is an <a href="Electromagnetic_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic wave">electromagnetic wave</a>, can only interact with another electromagnetic wave in the presence of electrons in a material,<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> and the strength of this interaction is much weaker for electromagnetic waves, such as light, than for the electronic signals in a conventional computer. This may result in the processing elements for an optical computer requiring more power and larger dimensions than those for a conventional electronic computer using transistors.

A further misconception is that since light can travel much faster than the <a href="Drift_velocity" title="Drift velocity">drift velocity</a> of electrons, and at frequencies measured in <a href="Terahertz_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Terahertz (unit)">THz</a>, optical transistors should be capable of extremely high frequencies. However, any electromagnetic wave must obey the <a href="Bandwidth-limited_pulse" title="Bandwidth-limited pulse">transform limit</a>, and therefore the rate at which an optical transistor can respond to a signal is still limited by its <a href="Spectral_bandwidth" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectral bandwidth">spectral bandwidth</a>. In <a href="Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">fiber-optic communications</a>, practical limits such as <a href="Dispersion_(optics)" title="Dispersion (optics)">dispersion</a> often constrain <a href="Wavelength-division_multiplexing" title="Wavelength-division multiplexing">channels</a> to bandwidths of tens of GHz, only slightly better than many silicon transistors. Obtaining dramatically faster operation than electronic transistors would therefore require practical methods of transmitting <a href="Ultrashort_pulse" title="Ultrashort pulse">ultrashort pulses</a> down highly dispersive waveguides.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Photonic_logic">Photonic logic</h2></div>

Photonic logic is the use of photons (<a href="Light" title="Light">light</a>) in <a href="Logic_gate" title="Logic gate">logic gates</a> (NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR). Switching is obtained using <a href="Nonlinear_optics" title="Nonlinear optics">nonlinear optical effects</a> when two or more signals are combined.<a href="#cite_note-jainprattpatent-7">[7]</a>

<a href="Optical_cavity" title="Optical cavity">Resonators</a> are especially useful in photonic logic, since they allow a build-up of energy from <a href="Constructive_interference" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructive interference">constructive interference</a>, thus enhancing optical nonlinear effects.

Other approaches that have been investigated include photonic logic at a <a href="Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">molecular level</a>, using <a href="Photoluminescence" title="Photoluminescence">photoluminescent</a> chemicals. In a demonstration, Witlicki et al. performed logical operations using molecules and <a href="Surface_enhanced_Raman_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy">SERS</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Unconventional_approaches">Unconventional approaches</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Time_delays_optical_computing">Time delays optical computing</h3></div>

The basic idea is to delay light (or any other signal) in order to perform useful computations.<a href="#cite_note-oltean_hamiltonian-13">[13]</a> Of interest would be to solve <a href="NP-completeness" title="NP-completeness">NP-complete problems</a> as those are difficult problems for the conventional computers.

There are two basic properties of light that are actually used in this approach:

<ul><li>The light can be delayed by passing it through an optical fiber of a certain length.</li>

<li>The light can be split into multiple (sub)rays. This property is also essential because we can evaluate multiple solutions in the same time.</li></ul>

When solving a problem with time-delays the following steps must be followed:

<ul><li>The first step is to create a graph-like structure made from optical cables and splitters. Each graph has a start node and a destination node.</li>

<li>The light enters through the start node and traverses the graph until it reaches the destination. It is delayed when passing through arcs and divided inside nodes.</li>

<li>The light is marked when passing through an arc or through a node so that we can easily identify that fact at the destination node.</li>

<li>At the destination node we will wait for a signal (fluctuation in the intensity of the signal) which arrives at a particular moment(s) in time. If there is no signal arriving at that moment, it means that we have no solution for our problem. Otherwise the problem has a solution. Fluctuations can be read with a <a href="Photodetector" title="Photodetector">photodetector</a> and an <a href="Oscilloscope" title="Oscilloscope">oscilloscope</a>.</li></ul>

The first problem attacked in this way was the <a href="Hamiltonian_path_problem" title="Hamiltonian path problem">Hamiltonian path problem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oltean_hamiltonian-13">[13]</a>

The simplest one is the <a href="Subset_sum_problem" title="Subset sum problem">subset sum problem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> An optical device solving an instance with four numbers {a1, a2, a3, a4} is depicted below:

The light will enter in Start node. It will be divided into two (sub)rays of smaller intensity. These two rays will arrive into the second node at moments a1 and 0. Each of them will be divided into two subrays which

will arrive in the third node at moments 0, a1, a2 and a1 + a2. These represents the all subsets of the set {a1, a2}. We expect fluctuations in the intensity of the signal at no more than four different moments. In the destination node we expect fluctuations at no more than 16 different moments (which are all the subsets of the given). If we have a fluctuation in the target moment B, it means that we have a solution of the problem, otherwise there is no subset whose sum of elements equals B. For the practical implementation we cannot have zero-length cables, thus all cables are increased with a small (fixed for all) value k'. In this case the solution is expected at moment B+n×k.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On-Chip_Photonic_Tensor_Cores">On-Chip Photonic Tensor Cores</h3></div>

With increasing demands on graphical processing unit-based accelerator technologies, in the second decade of the 21st century, there has been a huge emphasis on the use of on-chip integrated optics to create photonics-based processors. The emergence of both deep learning neural networks based on phase modulation,<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> and more recently amplitude modulation using photonic memories <a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> have created a new area of photonic technologies for neuromorphic computing,<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> leading to new photonic computing technologies, all on a chip such as the photonic tensor core.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wavelength-based_computing">Wavelength-based computing</h3></div>

Wavelength-based computing<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> can be used to solve the <a href="Boolean_satisfiability_problem#3-satisfiability" title="Boolean satisfiability problem">3-SAT</a> problem with n variables, m clauses and with no more than three variables per clause. Each wavelength, contained in a light ray, is considered as possible value-assignments to n variables. The optical device contains prisms and mirrors are used to discriminate proper wavelengths which satisfy the formula.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computing_by_xeroxing_on_transparencies">Computing by xeroxing on transparencies</h3></div>

This approach uses a photocopier and transparent sheets for performing computations.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <a href="Boolean_satisfiability_problem#3-satisfiability" title="Boolean satisfiability problem">k-SAT problem</a> with n variables, m clauses and at most k variables per clause has been solved in three steps:<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

<ul><li>Firstly all 2n possible assignments of n variables have been generated by performing n photocopies.</li>

<li>Using at most 2k copies of the truth table, each clause is evaluated at every row of the truth table simultaneously.</li>

<li>The solution is obtained by making a single copy operation of the overlapped transparencies of all m clauses.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Masking_optical_beams">Masking optical beams</h3></div>

The <a href="Travelling_salesman_problem" title="Travelling salesman problem">travelling salesman problem</a> has been solved by Shaked et al. (2007)<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> by using an optical approach. All possible TSP paths have been generated and stored in a binary matrix which was multiplied with another gray-scale vector containing the distances between cities. The multiplication is performed optically by using an optical correlator.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optical_Fourier_co-processors">Optical Fourier co-processors</h3></div>

Many computations, particularly in scientific applications, require frequent use of the 2D <a href="Discrete_Fourier_transform" title="Discrete Fourier transform">discrete Fourier transform</a> (DFT) – for example in solving differential equations describing propagation of waves or transfer of heat. Though modern GPU technologies typically enable high-speed computation of large 2D DFTs, techniques have been developed that can perform continuous Fourier transform optically by utilising the natural <a href="Fourier_optics#Fourier_transforming_property_of_lenses" title="Fourier optics">Fourier transforming property of lenses</a>. The input is encoded using a <a href="Liquid_crystal" title="Liquid crystal">liquid crystal</a> <a href="Spatial_light_modulator" title="Spatial light modulator">spatial light modulator</a> and the result is measured using a conventional CMOS or CCD image sensor. Such optical architectures can offer superior scaling of computational complexity due to the inherently highly interconnected nature of optical propagation, and have been used to solve 2D heat equations.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ising_machines">Ising machines</h3></div>

Physical computers whose design was inspired by the theoretical <a href="Ising_model" title="Ising model">Ising model</a> are called Ising machines.<a href="#cite_note-courtland-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-cartlidge-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a>

<a href="Yoshihisa_Yamamoto_(scientist)" title="Yoshihisa Yamamoto (scientist)">Yoshihisa Yamamoto</a>'s lab at <a href="Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford</a> pioneered building Ising machines using photons. Initially Yamamoto and his colleagues built an Ising machine using lasers, mirrors, and other optical components commonly found on an <a href="Optical_table" title="Optical table">optical table</a>.<a href="#cite_note-courtland-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-cartlidge-27">[27]</a>

Later a team at <a href="Hewlett_Packard_Labs" title="Hewlett Packard Labs">Hewlett Packard Labs</a> developed <a href="Photonic_chip" class="mw-redirect" title="Photonic chip">photonic chip</a> design tools and used them to build an Ising machine on a single chip, integrating 1,052 optical components on that single chip.<a href="#cite_note-courtland-26">[26]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Industry">Industry</h2></div>

Some additional companies involved with optical computing development include <a href="IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>,<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <a href="Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a>,<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Procyon Photonics,<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Lightelligence,<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Lightmatter,<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <a href="Optalysys" class="mw-redirect" title="Optalysys">Optalysys</a>,<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <a href="Xanadu_Quantum_Technologies" title="Xanadu Quantum Technologies">Xanadu Quantum Technologies</a>, QuiX Quantum, ORCA Computing, <a href="PsiQuantum" title="PsiQuantum">PsiQuantum</a>, Quandela, and TundraSystems Global.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>

<ul><li><a href="Linear_optical_quantum_computing" title="Linear optical quantum computing">Linear optical quantum computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_interconnect" title="Optical interconnect">Optical interconnect</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_neural_network" title="Optical neural network">Optical neural network</a></li>

<li><a href="Photonic_crystal#Applications" title="Photonic crystal">Photonic crystal § Applications</a></li>

<li><a href="Photonic_integrated_circuit" title="Photonic integrated circuit">Photonic integrated circuit</a></li>

<li><a href="Photonic_molecule" title="Photonic molecule">Photonic molecule</a></li>

<li><a href="Photonic_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Photonic transistor">Photonic transistor</a></li>

<li><a href="Programmable_photonics" title="Programmable photonics">Programmable photonics</a></li>

<li><a href="Silicon_photonics" title="Silicon photonics">Silicon photonics</a></li>

<li><a href="Unconventional_computing" title="Unconventional computing">Unconventional computing</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFFeitelson1988" class="citation book cs1">Feitelson, Dror G. (1988). Optical Computing: A Survey for Computer Scientists. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-262-06112-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMcAulay1991" class="citation book cs1">McAulay, Alastair D. (1991). Optical Computer Architectures: The Application of Optical Concepts to Next Generation Computers. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-471-63242-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFIbrahim_TAAmarnath_KKuo_LCGrover_R2004" class="citation journal cs1">Ibrahim TA; Amarnath K; Kuo LC; Grover R; Van V; Ho PT (2004). "Photonic logic NOR gate based on two symmetric microring resonators". Opt Lett. 29 (23): 2779–81. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004OptL...29.2779I">2004OptL...29.2779I</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1364%2FOL.29.002779">10.1364/OL.29.002779</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15605503">15605503</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBiancardo_MBignozzi_CDoyle_HRedmond_G2005" class="citation journal cs1">Biancardo M; Bignozzi C; Doyle H; Redmond G (2005). "A potential and ion switched molecular photonic logic gate". Chem. Commun. (31): 3918–20. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1039%2FB507021J">10.1039/B507021J</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16075071">16075071</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFJahnsLee1993" class="citation book cs1">Jahns, J.; Lee, S.H., eds. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SqCjBQAAQBAJ">Optical Computing Hardware: Optical Computing</a>. Elsevier Science. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4832-1844-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBarros_SGuan_SAlukaidey_T1997" class="citation journal cs1">Barros S; Guan S; Alukaidey T (1997). "An MPP reconfigurable architecture using free-space optical interconnects and Petri net configuring". Journal of System Architecture. 43 (6–7): 391–402. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1383-7621%2896%2900053-7">10.1016/S1383-7621(96)00053-7</a>.</cite></li>

<li><a href="Debabrata_Goswami" title="Debabrata Goswami">D. Goswami</a>, "Optical Computing", Resonance, June 2003; ibid July 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071215005609/http://www.iisc.ernet.in/academy/resonance/June2003/June2003p56-71.html">Web Archive of www.iisc.ernet.in/academy/resonance/July2003/July2003p8-21.html</a></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMain_TFeuerstein_RJJordan_HFHeuring_VP1994" class="citation journal cs1">Main T; Feuerstein RJ; Jordan HF; Heuring VP; Feehrer J; Love CE (1994). "Implementation of a general-purpose stored-program digital optical computer". Applied Optics. 33 (8): 1619–28. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994ApOpt..33.1619M">1994ApOpt..33.1619M</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1364%2FAO.33.001619">10.1364/AO.33.001619</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20862187">20862187</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25927679">25927679</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGuanBarros1994" class="citation book cs1">Guan, T.S.; Barros, S.P.V. (April 1994). "Reconfigurable Multi-Behavioural Architecture using Free-Space Optical Communication". Proceedings of the IEEE International Workshop on Massively Parallel Processing using Optical Interconnections. IEEE. pp. 293–305. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMPPOI.1994.336615">10.1109/MPPOI.1994.336615</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8186-5832-7</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:61886442">61886442</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGuanBarros1994" class="citation book cs1">Guan, T.S.; Barros, S.P.V. (August 1994). "Parallel Processor Communications through Free-Space Optics". TENCON '94. IEEE Region 10's Ninth Annual International Conference. Theme: Frontiers of Computer Technology. Vol. 2. IEEE. pp. 677–681. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTENCON.1994.369219">10.1109/TENCON.1994.369219</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7803-1862-5</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:61493433">61493433</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGuha_A.Ramnarayan_R.Derstine_M.1987" class="citation book cs1">Guha A.; Ramnarayan R.; Derstine M. (1987). "Architectural issues in designing symbolic processors in optics". Proceedings of the 14th annual international symposium on Computer architecture (ISCA '87). ACM. pp. 145–151. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F30350.30367">10.1145/30350.30367</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8186-0776-9</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14228669">14228669</a>.</cite></li>

<li>K.-H. Brenner, Alan Huang: "Logic and architectures for digital optical computers (A)", J. Opt. Soc. Am., A 3, 62, (1986)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBrenner1988" class="citation journal cs1">Brenner, K.-H. (1988). "A programmable optical processor based on symbolic substitution". Appl. Opt. 27 (9): 1687–91. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988ApOpt..27.1687B">1988ApOpt..27.1687B</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1364%2FAO.27.001687">10.1364/AO.27.001687</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20531637">20531637</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43648075">43648075</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFStreibl_N.Brenner_K.-H.Huang_A.Jahns_J.1989" class="citation journal cs1">Streibl N.; Brenner K.-H.; Huang A.; Jahns J.; Jewell J.L.; Lohmann A.W.; Miller D.A.B.; Murdocca M.J.; Prise M.E.; Sizer II T. (1989). "Digital Optics". Proc. IEEE. 77 (12): 1954–69. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2F5.48834">10.1109/5.48834</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:59276160">59276160</a>.</cite></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000510201540/http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2000/ast28apr_1m.htm">NASA scientists working to improve optical computing technology</a>, 2000</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tcreate.org/optical">Optical solutions for NP-complete problems</a></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDolevHaistOltean2008" class="citation book cs1">Dolev, S.; Haist, T.; Oltean, M. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G6ZYwjKh_QcC">Optical SuperComputing: First International Workshop, OSC 2008, Vienna, Austria, August 26, 2008, Proceedings</a>. Springer. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-540-85672-6</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDolevOltean2009" class="citation book cs1">Dolev, S.; Oltean, M. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sl44EkMjcIkC">Optical Supercomputing: Second International Workshop, OSC 2009, Bertinoro, Italy, November 18–20, 2009, Proceedings</a>. Springer. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-642-10441-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDolevOltean2011" class="citation book cs1">Dolev, S.; Oltean, M. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uf65jCXgFvwC">Optical Supercomputing: Third International Workshop, OSC 2010, Bertinoro, Italy, November 17–19, 2010, Revised Selected Papers</a>. Springer. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-642-22493-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDolevOltean2013" class="citation book cs1">Dolev, S.; Oltean, M. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Sy-7BQAAQBAJ">Optical Supercomputing: 4th International Workshop, OSC 2012, in Memory of H. John Caulfield, Bertinoro, Italy, July 19–21, 2012. Revised Selected Papers</a>. Springer. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-642-38250-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090913002603/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19526136.400-speedoflight-computing-comes-a-step-closer.html">Speed-of-light computing comes a step closer</a> New Scientist</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCaulfield_H.Dolev_S.2010" class="citation journal cs1">Caulfield H.; Dolev S. (2010). "Why future supercomputing requires optics". Nature Photonics. 4 (5): 261–263. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010NaPho...4..261C">2010NaPho...4..261C</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnphoton.2010.94">10.1038/nphoton.2010.94</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCohen_E.Dolev_S.Rosenblit_M.2016" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen E.; Dolev S.; Rosenblit M. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4853429">"All-optical design for inherently energy-conserving reversible gates and circuits"</a>. Nature Communications. 7: 11424. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016NatCo...711424C">2016NatCo...711424C</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fncomms11424">10.1038/ncomms11424</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4853429">4853429</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27113510">27113510</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKarasik2019" class="citation book cs1">Karasik, Yevgeny B. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Optical-Computational-Geometry-computational-constructions-dp-B095MQJ8NJ/dp/B095MQJ8NJ">Optical Computational Geometry</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>979-8511243344</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Optical_computing" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Optical computing">Optical computing</a> at Wikimedia Commons

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,69033,00.html?tw=newsletter_topstories_html">This Laser Trick's a Quantum Leap</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.extremetech.com/article2/0,1558,1779951,00.asp">Photonics Startup Pegs Q2'06 Production Date</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20070516050912/http://www.extremetech.com/article2/0,1558,1779951,00.asp">Archived</a> 2007-05-16 at <a href="Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physorg.com/news6123.html">Stopping light in quantum leap</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physorg.com/news199470370.html">High Bandwidth Optical Interconnects</a></li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Ambient_intelligence" title="Ambient intelligence">Ambient intelligence</a>

<ul><li><a href="Internet_of_things" title="Internet of things">Internet of things</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a>

<ul><li><a href="Applications_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Applications of artificial intelligence">Applications of artificial intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Machine_translation" title="Machine translation">Machine translation</a></li>

<li><a href="Machine_vision" title="Machine vision">Machine vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Mobile_translation" title="Mobile translation">Mobile translation</a></li>

<li><a href="Progress_in_artificial_intelligence" title="Progress in artificial intelligence">Progress in artificial intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_Web" title="Semantic Web">Semantic Web</a></li>

<li><a href="Speech_recognition" title="Speech recognition">Speech recognition</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Atomtronics" title="Atomtronics">Atomtronics</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_nanotube_field-effect_transistor" title="Carbon nanotube field-effect transistor">Carbon nanotube field-effect transistor</a></li>

<li><a href="Cybermethodology" title="Cybermethodology">Cybermethodology</a></li>

<li><a href="Augmented_reality" title="Augmented reality">Augmented reality</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_disc#Fourth-generation" title="Optical disc">Fourth-generation optical discs</a>

<ul><li><a href="3D_optical_data_storage" title="3D optical data storage">3D optical data storage</a></li>

<li><a href="Holographic_data_storage" title="Holographic data storage">Holographic data storage</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="General-purpose_computing_on_graphics_processing_units" title="General-purpose computing on graphics processing units">GPGPU</a></li>

<li>Memory

<ul><li><a href="Programmable_metallization_cell" title="Programmable metallization cell">CBRAM</a></li>

<li><a href="Electrochemical_RAM" title="Electrochemical RAM">ECRAM</a></li>

<li><a href="Millipede_memory" title="Millipede memory">Millipede</a></li>

<li><a href="Racetrack_memory" title="Racetrack memory">Racetrack memory</a></li>

<li><a href="SONOS" title="SONOS">SONOS</a></li>

<li><a href="UltraRAM" title="UltraRAM">UltraRAM</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Chipless_RFID" title="Chipless RFID">Chipless RFID</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Software-defined_radio" title="Software-defined radio">Software-defined radio</a></li>

<li><a href="Three-dimensional_integrated_circuit" title="Three-dimensional integrated circuit">Three-dimensional integrated circuit</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Automation" title="Automation">Automation</a></li>

<li><a href="Collingridge_dilemma" title="Collingridge dilemma">Collingridge dilemma</a></li>

<li><a href="Differential_technological_development" title="Differential technological development">Differential technological development</a></li>

<li><a href="Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">Disruptive innovation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ephemeralization" title="Ephemeralization">Ephemeralization</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Ethics</a>

<li><a href="Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bioethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyberethics" title="Cyberethics">Cyberethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroethics" title="Neuroethics">Neuroethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Robot_ethics" title="Robot ethics">Robot ethics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Exploratory_engineering" title="Exploratory engineering">Exploratory engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Proactionary_principle" title="Proactionary principle">Proactionary principle</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_change" title="Technological change">Technological change</a>

<ul><li><a href="Technological_unemployment" title="Technological unemployment">Technological unemployment</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">Technological convergence</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_evolution" title="Technological evolution">Technological evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_paradigm" title="Technological paradigm">Technological paradigm</a></li>

<li><a href="Technology_forecasting" title="Technology forecasting">Technology forecasting</a>

<ul><li><a href="Accelerating_change" title="Accelerating change">Accelerating change</a></li>

<li><a href="Future-oriented_technology_analysis" title="Future-oriented technology analysis">Future-oriented technology analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Horizon_scanning" title="Horizon scanning">Horizon scanning</a></li>

<li><a href="Moore's_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">Technological singularity</a></li>

<li><a href="Technology_scouting" title="Technology scouting">Technology scouting</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Technology_in_science_fiction" title="Technology in science fiction">Technology in science fiction</a></li>

<li><a href="Technology_readiness_level" title="Technology readiness level">Technology readiness level</a></li>

<li><a href="Technology_roadmap" title="Technology roadmap">Technology roadmap</a></li>

<li><a href="Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Photonics52" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Photonics52" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Photonics" title="Photonics">Photonics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biophotonics" title="Biophotonics">Biophotonics</a></li>

<li><a href="Microphotonics" title="Microphotonics">Microphotonics</a></li>

<li><a href="Nanophotonics" title="Nanophotonics">Nanophotonics</a> (<a href="Plasmonics" title="Plasmonics">Plasmonics</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Silicon_photonics" title="Silicon photonics">Silicon photonics</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biophoton" title="Biophoton">Biophoton</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_DPSK_demodulator" title="Optical DPSK demodulator">Optical DPSK demodulator</a></li>

<li><a href="Delay_line_interferometer" title="Delay line interferometer">Delay line interferometer</a></li>

<li><a href="Erbium-doped_waveguide_amplifier" title="Erbium-doped waveguide amplifier">Erbium-doped waveguide amplifier</a></li>

<li><a href="Laser" title="Laser">Laser</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_interleaver" title="Optical interleaver">Optical interleaver</a></li>

<li><a href="Photonic_integrated_circuit" title="Photonic integrated circuit">Photonic integrated circuit</a></li>

<li><a href="Photonic_crystal" title="Photonic crystal">Photonic crystal</a></li>

<li><a href="Photonic-crystal_fiber" title="Photonic-crystal fiber">Photonic-crystal fiber</a></li>

<li><a href="Slot-waveguide" title="Slot-waveguide">Slot-waveguide</a></li>

<li><a href="Subwavelength-diameter_optical_fibre" title="Subwavelength-diameter optical fibre">Subwavelength-diameter optical fibre</a></li>

<li><a href="Superprism" title="Superprism">Superprism</a></li>

<li><a href="Time_stretch_analog-to-digital_converter" class="mw-redirect" title="Time stretch analog-to-digital converter">Time stretch analog-to-digital converter</a></li>

<li><a href="Wireless_power_transfer" title="Wireless power transfer">Wireless power transfer</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Arrayed_waveguide_grating" title="Arrayed waveguide grating">Arrayed waveguide grating</a></li>

<li><a href="Atomic_coherence" title="Atomic coherence">Atomic coherence</a></li>

<li><a href="Dark_state" title="Dark state">Dark state</a></li>

<li><a href="Diffraction_grating" title="Diffraction grating">Diffraction grating</a></li>

<li><a href="Extraordinary_optical_transmission" title="Extraordinary optical transmission">Extraordinary optical transmission</a></li>

<li><a href="Holographic_grating" title="Holographic grating">Holographic grating</a></li>

<li><a href="Monte_Carlo_method_for_photon_transport" title="Monte Carlo method for photon transport">Monte Carlo method for photon transport</a></li>

<li><a href="Wavelength_selective_switching" title="Wavelength selective switching">Wavelength selective switching</a></li>

<li><a href="Photon_diffusion" title="Photon diffusion">Photon diffusion</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">Fiber-optic communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_neural_network" title="Optical neural network">Optical neural network</a></li>

<li><a href="Solar_sail" title="Solar sail">Solar sail</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_optics" title="Quantum optics">Quantum optics</a></li>

<li><a href="Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">Solid-state physics</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-06-21" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Optical_computing&oldid=1296649802">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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